Sustainable development in Europe

last updated: 08/97

 

Introduction

The concept of sustainable development has been described as ‘a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development and institutional changes are made consistent with our future as well as present needs’ . Put more simply, it is ‘considering tomorrow when planning today.’ This report examines sustainable development in four key sections. Section I considers the concepts behind sustainability, and the requirements it places on our future resource use. Section II examines the some of the practical moves European cities are making to move towards sustainability and Section III looks at Transport in Europe, at both continent-wide and local levels. Section IV examines the roles of government and industry in making changes in current practices.

Section I - Sustainable Development: Concepts and Goals
Section II - Case Studies In Urban Sustainability
Section III - Sustainability in Transport
Section IV - Motivating Industry: Partnership and Prodding
Bibliography

Sustainable Development in Europe Part I - Concepts and Goals



1. Introduction - Nature of Urban Sustainability in Europe

Europe is a continent dissimilar to most others on the planet. It is a densely-populated, largely urbanized landmass, where resource use is high. However, the idea of the sustainable development in Europe is a relatively recent one, dating to the mid- 1980s. Some early publications which indicated a growing interest in sustainability by government organizations included the Commission of European Communities’ Greenbook on the Urban Environment (1990), and the OECD’s Environmental Policies for Cities in the 1990s (1990). However, it is only in the mid-1990s that the real need for a sustainable Europe has become apparent, and that practical steps have begun to be taken by the EU. Among these are the Commission’s conferences on European Sustainable Cities and Towns, the first of which was held in Aalborg, Denmark in 1994, and the second in Lisbon, Portugal in 1996.

2. The Concept of Urban Ecology

Closely-allied to the concept of sustainability (and often used interchangeably with it) is the concept of urban ecology. Urban ecology aims to design principles for sound urban environmental policy. While not making a city necessarily sustainable it is the process of attempting to minimize a city’s impact on its environment. The key aims of urban ecology are to:

3. The Concept of Environmental Space

Environmental Space (also known as an ‘Ecological Footprint’) calculates sustainability on the basis of total available global resources, and the population which has to share those resources. It holds that every person on the planet is entitled to an equal share of resources (the concept of equity). Although it has been largely developed by environmental pressure groups, independent analysis shows it to be a useful starting point for setting targets for global sustainability. In particular, Environmental Space is useful in highlighting the over-consumption of resources in Europe (as in the US), and showing how dramatically resource use must be reduced for a sustainable world. For example, the ecological footprint of the Netherlands is 15x greater than its land area. That is, to maintain its standard of living, the Netherlands uses the resources of an area 509 000 km2, compared to the 33 920 km2 that lie within its borders, clearly showing how the eco-systems which support an industrialized nation (providing food, fuel etc.) often lie far beyond its national borders. Some of the dramatic changes needed to achieve sustainability are discussed below and shown in Figures I.1-I.3.

Fig. I.1 Environmental Space Analysis 1 - Energy Use

Fig. I.2 Environmental Space Analysis 2 - Non-renewables

Fig I.3 Environmental Space Analysis 3 - Land Use

* Represents the use of agricultural land in other countries to supply Europe’s needs.

Global CO2 emissions need to be reduced to 2 Gt/yr to meet the capacity of the environment to absorb the gas. This means the allowable emission per person per year is 1.7t, compared to Europe’s current output 7.3t per person per year.
For non-renewable resources (fossils fuels, iron, aluminum etc.) clearly the actual environmental space is 0 (i.e. 100% recycling required). Clearly in the short (and even in the long) term this is unlikely to occur. Figures given by Friends of the Earth in their environmental space analyses (and shown in fig I.2) are based on reducing the ‘global matter flow’ (i.e. using materials close to source to limit environmental impact). Required reductions therefore represent the limited amount of materials in Europe and a desire to reduce global matter flows by 50%.
One clear problem with the environmental space approach to sustainability is that the targets constantly change as the world’s population increases, and the direction (and rate) of future population growth is not easy to predict. The figures above are based on world population stabilizing at around 7.2 billion.

Sustainable Development in Europe Part II - Case Studies In Urban Sustainability

1. Waste to Energy - Landfill Gas

Old landfills, dating back to the 1940s, are still causing environmental damage. Toxic compounds leak into the water table from these sites, plant growth in the area is inhibited, and, on occasion, explosions have been reported. Such explosions are the result of the build-up of methane gas which occurs as organic matter in the landfill is broken down by bacteria. Methane is of environmental concern due to both its explosiveness and its global warming potential (up to 62 times that of the same volume of CO2).
In the UK, developments are underway to utilize this landfill gas (LFG) as fuel for electricity generation. In a typical landfill, gas is produced over a 30 year time-scale with commercially viable yields (at least 28% v/v methane) for 10-15 of those years, peaking about 5 years after waste emplacement. By 1993, gas was being collected from vertical wells and horizontal collection systems at 61 sites across the UK, generating a total of 9 200 GJ as heat at 447 GWh as electricity. The cost of the electricity generated was 4.27p/kWh, based on a 1MW power plant with a ten year lifespan. While not fully commercial at this cost, environmental benefits (conversion of methane to CO2), and the UK government commitment to 1500MW of new renewable energy by 2000, shows the technology to have significant promise. The technology is not only used in the UK, one recent paper reports similar plants being used in Denmark.

2. Energy from Biomass

Biomass has generally been considered a low-technology, low-efficiency source of energy. While this is still generally still true in the developing world, it is no longer so in Europe., where a number of countries now have significant percentages of their energy requirements met through exploitation of biomass. Finland has the highest proportion of biomass energy (18%), followed by Sweden (16%) and Austria (13%). This compares with just 4% in the USA.


2.1 Current Bio-Energy Use

In Finland 45% of bio-energy is obtained by the burning of waste liquors from the wood-pulping industry. On average Finland’s pulp-and-paper mills meet 65% of their energy from their own waste products; newer plants provide in excess of 100% and sell surplus energy to the power companies. However, it is not only waste biomass which is used to produce energy. In Sweden extensive effort has been expended in developing plantations specifically for short-rotation biomass purposes. As the country has made a commitment to phase out its 12 nuclear power plants and to not exploit four major rivers for hydro-electric power, biomass will play an increasingly important role in the county’s energy reserves. Presently 16 000 ha of land is used for growing biomass willow, and this area looks set to increase significantly in the near future.


2.2 Potential Future Applications of Biomass

The European Union has also recently begun looking at the co-burning of various types of waste with powdered bituminous coal . Of particular interest has been the experiments in using municipal sewage-sludge. A number of different coals were co-fired with 30%, 50%, and 70% sewage sludge. The results show that co-firing is feasible, but that NOx emissions are high, and that there are potential problems with slagging and fouling. However this work is still in preliminary stages, and it is possible that commercial interest could lead to these problems being overcome.
A further high-tech use of biomass is in the production of bio-ethanol from, for example, sugar beet. Although this has not yet been commercially established in Europe, it has been considered and potential benefits calculated. One of the major advantages is that net carbon emissions are only 28% of that due to oil/gasoline (due to carbon sequestration in the growing crops). However the cost of ethanol per gallon is still roughly 5 times greater than fossil fuels, and further refinement of the technology will clearly be required before commercial viability.

3. Heat and Electricity (Co-generation)

Power plants use enormous amounts of water to cool turbines and generators. In most European power plants the heat from this water is wasted - dumped into rivers or lakes, or pumped through large cooling towers. This reduces the efficiency of a typical (non-nuclear) power plant to 35%. However, in a number of plants, adaptations have been made which enable this energy to be utilized in district heating schemes. Use of heat in such a scheme raises power plant efficiency to 85% and can raise substantial revenues for the power generation company. In the UK, there is a commitment to 5 000 MW of CHP (combined heat and power) generation, which will reduce CO2 emissions by 3.6 x 106 tonnes.
One novel variation on the theme of a CHP is a plant which has been installed in Sheffield, England. The city’s waste incinerator burns 140 000 tonnes of refuse annually, and energy from combustion is used to heat water through three heat exchangers. The system provides 130 000 MWh of heat, which is supplied to 3500 flats and 50 of Sheffield’s largest buildings through over 12 km of pipes. In addition, an extraction/condensing steam turbine has been added to the flue system to produce electricity, which will begin to be sold on a commercial basis in 1998. Thus a waste incinerator has been transformed from a costly amenity to a revenue generating one. The plant sells heat worth UKP3.8 million per year, and electricity sales are expected to generate another UKP1 million. In addition, the replacement of building’s individual boilers by the centrally-generated heat has reduced CO₂ emissions in Sheffield by 50% and has further improved air quality through reducing NOx and SO₂ emissions.

4. Recycling Initiatives

Across Europe communities have become increasingly interested in recycling. Usually however, the idea of recycling is limited to ‘waste’ such as aluminum and steel, paper, and glass. However the town of Vaasa in Norway has gone much further and now recycles in excess of 90% of its waste.
Vaasa began its drive towards recycling in the mid- 1980s when the town’s landfill site was becoming full, and no alternate site was available. As a result the decision was made to radically change waste treatment processes. A key factor in the plans was the building of the Stormossen Biological Treatment Plant, to process the city’s biodegradable waste. Since the plant came on line in 1991 domestic and industrial waste is sorted at source into four categories: biodegradable, combusitble, ferrous and aluminum recyclables, and other. Waste processing is detailed in fig II.1, but essentially the city recycles 905kg from every 1000kg of waste, producing 2850 kWh of electricity in the process.

Fig. II.1 - Waste Recycling at Vaasa, Norway

5. Treatment of Biological Waste

Treatment of biodegradable waste in Europe has continually improved in the last decade, and is discussed below. However, novel treatment of sewage, using biofilms, bioreactors, and constructed wetlands has only recently been examined (FRUK Environment report- http://www.fujita.com/fruk/Environment.html) and is not further considered here.
The separation of biological/biodegradable waste at source is now mandatory in a number of European countries, including Austria, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands and Switzerland. In Germany alone this results in over 4 million tonnes of biowaste per year requiring further treatment at one of 500 plants. Usually this achieved using an anaerobic/aerobic process such as the Dranco Process which is utilized in Salzburg, Austria and Brecht, Belgium. and produces bio-gas, compost, and recoverable water.
The incoming waste is typically contains 45% total solids, 55% of which are volatile. The waste is sieved at 40 mm, and mixed with digested residue, heated with steam and pumped into a digester. After 20 days at 55°C (during which biogas is removed and used in electricity generation and steam production) the residue is dewatered 50% in a screw press. This water is fed make into municipal treatment systems. The dewatered residue is then sieved (12 mm) and composted aerobically for ten days before being sold as high quality compost. A typical plant can process 20 000 tonnes/yr of bio-waste, producing sufficient bio-gas to sell electricity back to the national electricity supplier.

6. Community Building Design

Sustainability also has a social, as well as environmental, aspect. It is about empowering citizens and improving quality of life. The three following sections consider such sustainability, in new buildings, rehabilitation of problem estates, and in community centers.


6.1 New Communities: Und Erstenhöjden

Und Erstenhöjden is a small, picturesque suburb of Stockhölm, about fifteen minutes from the city-center. Popular with students and young families there has been a demand for more housing, a demand resisted by the residents already living there. In the end the city authorities and existing residents compromised on a decision to build 44 new ‘Ecologic’ houses. One of the key elements in this ecological design was for the units to be sold before construction, and for an architect and the owner to customize the internal design of the 101 m2 house to suit their individual needs .
A minimum number of access roads were provided to the site, and environmentally-friendly materials used throughout. Roofs were made of terracotta and lined with cardboard. Wall insulation was cellulose fiber, and where possible use of metal and/or plastic was avoided altogether. In the center of the houses a communal building was erected. It provides social facilities and also contains the boiler plant which heats all the houses through burning ‘pellets’ made from wastepaper. All appliances are low-energy models, and there is no mechanical ventilation in summer. The toilets in the community were originally designed to separate urine, which would then be sold to a local farmer as a source of urea, but geological conditions resulted in the community having to use the main Stockhölm sewage system.
Communities similar to Und Erstenhöjden are also being established in Denmark. Over the last decade 30 clusters (eco-villages) of 50 houses have been built. Each is owner-designed. A central house provides heating for the village, communal dining facilities, and a greenhouse for growing vegetables etc. In addition electricity is provided to the community through a local wind-turbine.


6.2 Community Rehabilitation: Top Toijala Project

Toijala is a rural, northern European town of 8100 citizens. One housing estate, the Rautala Flats with 350 residents had a particularly bad reputation in the early 1990s, with very high levels of unemployment, violence, and vandalism. The city administration decided to try radical untried methods to improve life on the estate. They developed a community theater in which real-life problems were acted out, and in which the residents developed solutions in co-operation. Also introduced were songs or “raps” which detailed the estate’s problems. Such songs were a traditional method of communication in medieval Northern Europe. Using catchy tunes, the songs soon spread through the estate, new one’s were composed, and in time they became a useful tool in making residents aware of problems, which could then be discussed and solved.
The children living in the flats were helped to make a video about their lives. Through this, it emerged that one of the main problems was the lack of a football pitch. As a result models were made in schools and as a result, planning for the pitch was approved. The “Top Toijala’ Project was widely considered a great success: violence and unemployment have dropped and the number of vacant apartments has also been reduced through people now wanting to live in the community.


6.3 An Eco-Stadium

The town of Kemi in Norway has recently developed one of the most unusual, but environmentally-friendly, form of building. Lacking a large venue for plays, concerts etc., the town of Kemi in Norway has taken to constructing one in the local park each winter. The difference with Kemi’s concert hall is that it is built out of snow. “Kemi Snow Castle” has a floor area of 10 000 m2 and a is constructed from over 40 000 m3 of snow and ice. In addition to providing locals with a venue for theater, it also attracts tourists, over 30 000 in 1995. Seen by over 3 million people on TV worldwide, the structure melts each spring, providing Kemi with a green park for outdoor summer entertainments.

Sustainable Development in Europe Part III- sustainability in transport

1.0 Introduction to Part III

At current growth rates, it is likely that the global car population will reach more than two billion by 2025. Growth on this scale is not sustainable under any circumstances; the planet simply cannot support this number of vehicles, even with significant improvements in levels of NOx and CO2 emissions. Although it is recognized that transport is a vital element in economic and social activities, it must serve those activities rather than being an end in itself. Truly sustainable transport will only come about through:
reduction of car usage and car numbers
reduction of distance traveled (unless traveled by walking/cycling)
meeting of transport needs by the least environmentally destructive means

These goals can be met by a number of strategies. The most effective of these is the development of a flexible, cheap and attractive public transportation system. However, the development of public transport must also be coupled with a new emphasis in town-planning. There needs to be an active emphasis on the placement of public facilities, and active discouragement of the building of popular destinations (theme parks, shopping complexes) in areas where they will attract car-users. It is also important to have transportation policy directed by a body which has no financial interest in one particular type of transport.
One recent paper describes the process of getting people to abandon cars as requiring both “push” and “pull”. A push factor is one which makes car travel less attractive, a pull factor serves to make the alternatives more appealing. There are a third group of factors which both push and pull. These factors are detailed in Table III.1.

Table III.1 Push and Pull effects (after Topp and Pharoah3)

Push	Parking management/restrictions
	Car limited areas
	Time-of-day car bans
	Speed reductions
	Road Pricing
Pull	Priority for buses and trams
	High frequency public transport
	Passenger-friendly bus stops
	Park-and-ride
	Cycle networks
	Pedestrian connections
Push-and-Pull	Redistributing road space for bus/cycle lanes
	Broader footpaths
	Re-timing traffic signals to benefit buses/cycles
	Public-awareness campaigns/marketing

2. Europe - the Current situation

Although the concept of sustainable development is increasingly considered in Europe, sustainable transport policy has not been widely researched. Indeed, the European Commission is embarking on a number of long-distance rail and road-links which will only serve to increase traffic across the continent, supporting freight movement and making increasingly long commutes possible for workers. Clearly, the Commission is supporting a demand for mobility, which is at odds with the goal of sustainable transportation. Such measures as there are to limit environmental impact of transport are ‘end-of-pipe’ approaches such as catalytic converters or electric vehicles, which merely displace, rather than reduce environmental impact. Yet traffic congestion in the EU already costs 2-3% of member countries’ GDP, and is responsible for over as much as 80% of air pollution in some city centers.
At the local level however, the EC has finally begun to consider sustainability. In 1992 the Commission published a paper entitled Transport Europe which examined sustainable transport at the city-level. It concluded that the total cost of running a car-free city was up to five times less than one in which cars were allowed. However, many of the costs associated with cars in a city are borne by the private sector, hiding the real total savings which could be achieved.
The people of Europe are largely in favor of measures to reduce traffic, at least within city centers. A survey carried out in 1991 by the EMNID showed that 85% of people supported drastic measures to reduce car traffic within big cities. When the issue was car-free city centers the majority in favor dropped to 53% with 63% of non-drivers favoring the idea, compared to 49% of drivers. This survey is further backed by the findings of Whitelegg , which showed that access to cars is an issue that has a lot lower priority for city dwellers than safe streets, an unpolluted atmosphere, and a good public transport system. Of prime consideration in planning a car free city is the distance which people are prepared to walk everyday, either to their workplace or to the public transport which will take them there. This will obviously vary with climatic conditions and culture, but it is interesting to note the results of one recent report , which showed that in Bremen, Germany 65% of people were prepared to walk 500 m to work each day, but that only 12% were prepared to walk 1 km.

3. Case-Studies - ‘Car-Free’ City Centers

A number of city throughout Europe are taking steps to reduce the number of cars in city centers. For example Copenhagen has, since 1984, reduced the number of available parking spaces in the city center by 2-3% per year, while simultaneously increasing levels of public transport. In Zürich, Switzerland all city center traffic lights have been altered to allow buses and trams to pass through intersections without being stopped, and new residential areas are allowed to built only if they are close to public transport routes. In Bremen, Germany and Edinburgh, Scotland new residential blocks have been built where residents are only accepted if they undertake not to own a car. Three case studies below consider cities for which traffic reduction strategies have been in force for a number of years, examining the effects and changes in public attitudes.

Bologna, Italy: ‘Limited Traffic City’
Population: 54 000 residents 80 000 commuters
Although not a truly car-free city, throughout the 1980s Bologna took a number of steps in order to reduce traffic in the central ‘Old City’. The main emphasis was on the improvement of public transport (development of bus lanes and increasing the number of minibus and trolleybus services throughout the city and surrounding area) and the introduction of strict parking limitations. Together, these measures were successful in reducing traffic by 50% between 1981 and 1989. However, developments in Bologna between 1990 and 1994 have shown how important the role of government is in maintaining a car-free city. In 1990, a government less committed to environmental issues was elected. Gradually car limitations were eroded by the new government, and by 1994 traffic had risen to 90% of its 1981 level. Perhaps as a result of this, the city government changed again in 1994, and new pledges were made protect the Old Town from excessive traffic levels.

Lübeck, Germany: ‘Car-Free Inner-City”
Population:215 000
Lübeck has an old city-center located on an island in a river, particularly prone to traffic congestion. Beginning in 1989 the city center was made car-free on one Saturday per month. By 1993 the ban had been extended to every Saturday and Sunday, and from 1994 the ban was to last throughout the week from 10am to 6pm. To support the ban Lübeck introduced more frequent buses, bus routes to connect to park-and-ride locations on the periphery of the city, free buses within the city center, and the provision of baggage-carrying buses.
The success of car-free Lübeck has been greater than many people expected. A 1994 survey reported 85% of people were in favor of the ban, which had resulted in 40% - 80% less cars using access roads to the city-center. Of those citizens that used to drive into the city center 58% now drive to the edge of the center, 30% use park-and-ride facilities, and 12% cycle, walk, or use other forms of public transport.
At the time of the ban’s introduction, its strongest opponents were city center retailers, who believed that the lack of passing traffic would reduce sales. However, by 1994 the retailers were fully in support of the ban, having found that pedestrian numbers and sales had increased with the absence of cars.

York, England: ‘Pedestrian Priority City’
Population:100 000
York has a medieval city center. Concerns over rapid increases in traffic-levels, dating from the mid 1980s, led to the establishment in 1988 of ‘pedestrian priority streets’. These 34 streets and alleys cover most of the 30 hectare core of the medieval city. Throughout the whole city, the following priorities have been adopted for all traffic-planning decisions:

1. Pedestrians
2. Disabled people
3. Cyclists
4. Public Transport passengers
5. Commercial/Business vehicles
6. Car-borne shoppers
7. Long-distance bus-borne tourists
8. Car-borne long-stay commuters

These priorities have lead to one of the highest proportions (20%) of bicycle journeys to work in the UK. Following its initial success in reducing traffic, the council is considering the introduction of tolls on all city center roads, with the revenue raised used to further subsidize the cost of public transport, and continue expansion of York’s park-and-ride schemes.

Nuremburg, Germany:Car Free City Center
Population 485 000
Nuremburg has one of the largest pedestrianized city center areas in Europe - with a diameter of 3 km closed to all through traffic. Pedestrianization has taken place step-wise since the early 1970s, when the city began construction of a subway system (now 23 km long). Closing of streets to cars has been combined with modernization of Nuremberg’s 40 km tram network, modernization of the S-Bahn (suburban train) and development of cycle routes (which now account for 11% of total journeys in the city center. The public transport network has been tightly integrated, with one ticket able to be used on tram, bus, or train. In addition, convenient interchange stations have been designed to aid journeys which require multiple forms of transport.

One major finding in Nuremburg has been that the closure of roads does not simply re-route traffic, but decreases it. Before 1972 Museumsbrücke and Fleischerbrücke carried over 22 500 vehicles per day; after pedestrianization total increase in traffic in parallel streets was just 24%. Closure of streets has been accompanied by other measures, most notably a 30 km/hr speed limit in the roads which are open to traffic, and a 500% increase in parking charges.

As with other pedestrianization schemes, the initial changes were opposed by shop-owners. However in most cases, turnover increased by approx. 20% and further extensions of the pedestrianized area were not opposed.

Sustainable Development in Europe Part IV - Motivating Industry (Partnership and Prodding)

1. Introduction

The single major issue motivating companies is profit. Yet, there are a number of reasons that companies will respond to environmental issues - these are detailed in Table IV.1.

Table IV.1 - Incentives in Urban Ecology (after Roberts )

Motivation	Benefit
Compliance with Legislation	Avoiding incurring fines
Cost-saving	Increase in profits
Competitiveness	Increasing market share by meeting customers’ environmental concerns
Productivity and Creativity	Motivation of staff through working in an “green” environment.
New Markets	The market for environmental technology is growing at 5-6% per year

2. Environmental Taxes

One way to encourage sustainability is to tax use of resources. This is the concept of the “Environmental Tax” or “Green Tax”, where taxes are either charged to partially compensate for environmental cost of processes, or to make environmentally-friendly options more financially attractive. The very first environmental taxes were charged in the Netherlands in the 1970s. These were small ‘cost-covering charges’, making the polluter pay for the cost of regulating emissions.
Green taxes have been found to be generally less unpopular than might have been expected. The public tend to resent taxes when they serve solely to increase government revenue. In general, Green taxes are either earmarked for specific environmental purposes, or can be avoided through changing working practices. An example given in one recent paper is the Swedish tax on sulfur emissions, introduced in 1991. The tax seeks to reduce the levels of sulfur in flue gases and in vehicle fuels by charging a tax of $US6/kg for emitted sulfur. This compares to the average abatement cost (through cleaning flue gases etc. of $US1.50/kg). In addition the tax differential is enough to compensate for the increased cost in producing low sulfur fuel, and the percentage of sulfur in Swedish fuel oils has dropped from 0.65% (1990) to 0.4% (1994). Table IV.2 shows some of the other environmental taxes applied in various European countries.

Table IV.2 Environmental Taxes in Europe (after Burke )

Tax or Charge	Environmental Aim	Effects
CO2 Tax (Sweden)	Reduce CO2 emissions	Environmetal:Possible change in fuel types used.
Higher taxes on leaded gasoline (Sweden)	Increase use of unleaded fuels.	Environmetal: 80% reduction in lead emission. Financial: Tax differential exceeds production costs
Fertilizer Charges (Sweden)	Reduce nitrate and phosphate levels	Environmetal: Nitrogen levels down 25%, Phosphate Levels down 65%
Toxic Waste Charge (Germany)	Reduce production of Toxic Waste	Environmetal: Reduction of toxic waste production 25-40% (1991-1993). Financial: Increased costs of dumping waste 10-30%
Water Pollution Charge (Netherlands)	Revenue used in water treatment	Environmetal: Reduction of BOD in waste by 79% (1975-1991) Financial: Pollution abatement costs similar to charges
Battery Charges (Sweden)	Cover costs of battery collection/disposal	Environmetal: Collection rate of lead batteries 95%, lower use of cadmium containing cells.

Environmental Taxes are clearly making a difference in Europe, and it seems likely that, in time, they will be introduced in the United States at the state or federal level. They are probably the least unpopular of taxes, and they are serving to make industry behave in a more sustainable manner.

3. “Ecoprofit”

The Ecoprofit scheme runs in the city of Graz, Austria. It is a scheme which attempts to show industry how moves towards sustainability need not cost a company money. It is a joint project between Austria’s Department of Environmental Protection, industry, and research groups in the Department of Chemical Industry at Graz’s Technical University. When a company joins the scheme, a thorough analysis of all aspects of their business is undertaken (including analysis of all raw materials used in each and every industrial process). From this the research groups suggest ways the business can act more sustainably. Suprisingly many of these suggestions also bring economic benefit. A full 24% of suggested improvements will pay for themselves in less than one year, a further 30% in less than two years. Of the remainder of improvements 15% are revenue neutral, while just 31% will end up costing a company more.
The Ecoprofit scheme benefits both the city administration and the individual companies. The city administration gains better co-operation with companies, a preventative way of protecting the environment, and, knowing discharges of a company, can better plan waste management. The company gains effective processes (and often higher production), a better public image, and better relations with the local government.

4. Leicester “Environment City”

Leicester, England has one of the most ambitious environmental schemes in Europe, including a commitment to lower CO2 production by 50% by 2025. Leicester initially developed Specialist Working Groups (SWGs) to target different areas of Urban Ecology. While they had many successes they were not particularly well used by businesses. This lead to the creation of the “Environ” a council-initiated unit which offers a number of services to businesses in the area. Environ performs environmental reviews (along similar lines to the Ecoprofit scheme in Austria), but at a cost of UKP1-2000 they proved attractive only to larger companies, even though in 82% of cases the improvements suggested paid for themselves within two years. In response Environ set up a free telephone-help center for all businesses which answers queries on any aspect of local sustainability and offers a number of services including a Waste Recycling Service which puts waste producers in contact with firms which can use that specific type of waste as fuel or a raw material.

Sustainable Development in Europe Part V - Bibliography

World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, 1987

I.Moffat, ‘Environmental Space’, International Journal of Sustainable Development, Vol.3, No.4, (1996) pp.49-69

K.A.Brown and D.H.Maunder ‘Using Landfill Gas: A UK perspective’ Renewable Energy, V.5 Pt.II (1994)pp.774-781

D.O. Hall, ‘Biomass energy in industrialised countries - a view of the future’ Forest Ecology and Management, v.91 n.1 (1997) pp.17-45

W.L.VandeKamp & D.J.Morgan, ‘The co-firing of pulverised bituminous coals with straw, waste paper, and municipal sewage sludge’ Combustion Science and Technology, v.121 n.1-6 (1996) pp.317-332

I. Dergalin, Innovations for the improvement of the Urban Environment: Austria, Finland, Sweden (1996)

H.Topp and T.Pharoah, ‘Car-Free City Centres’ Transportation, v.21 n.3 (1994), pp231-47

J. Whitelegg, Transport for a sustainable future (1993)

I. Dergalin, Innovations for the improvement of the Urban Enviroment (1996)

I.Roberts, Local sustainability: Turning Sustainable Development into Practical Actions in our Communities: Leicester (1996)

M. Burke, ‘Environmental Taxes Gaining Ground in Europe’ Environmental Science and Technology v.31 n.2 (1997)pp.84-88

 

back to top